Vaisheshika philosophy
Vaisheshika is derived from
the word “Visesha” which means particularity or essence of things. Sage
Kanada who lived in the 6th century BCE is the founder of
this system and he composed the “Vaisheshika Sutra” also known as the “Kanada
Sutra”. Sage Prashastapada has written a "Bhashya" or commentary on the
Vaisheshika sutra called “Padartha Dharma Sangraha” in the 2nd century BCE.
Since the Vaisheshika sutra lacked clarity, was not well ordered, and was not
perfectly arranged, Sage Prasasthapada systematised it to a broader level of
clarity and conciseness and comprehensiveness of the text. This is actually an
independent text and is called “Padartha Dharma Sangraha” eclipsed the
Vaisheshika Sutra to oblivion and “Padartha Dharma Sangraha” became the
standard text of Vaisheshika philosophy to the rest of the commentators of
Vaisheshika sutra. Later in the 8th century CE Sage Vyomasiva wrote Vyomavati, Sage Sreedhara wrote Nyayakandali in the 9th century
CE, and Sage Udayana wrote Kiranavali in the 10th century CE. Later
Sage Sankara Misra wrote two commentaries on Sage Kanada’s Vaisheshika Sutra in
14 century CE one text is called Kanadarahasya and the other is called Upaskara, which is very elaborative and leads to its inner knowledge of this
philosophy. Consequently, after the intense effort by Sage Prasastapada, “Padartha Dharma Sangraha” became the comprehensive text of Vaisheshika
philosophy.
Furthermore, Nyaya philosophy is identical to
Vaisheshika philosophy in some aspects and both are fused together. Nyaya
philosophy is focused on logic and epistemology and deals with the right
knowledge of reality, while Vaisheshika develops Metaphysics and ontology and
takes up the exposition of pluralistic reality and diversity of the universe.
These two together are called syncretic or allied systems (samantara) and have
the same goal. The difference between the two systems is that Nyaya philosophy
accepts four sources of knowledge while Vaisheshika accepts only two sources.
Moreover, a very important and
distinguishable feature of Vaisheshika is that it is not strictly the
philosophical system not in the traditional sense of the world. According to
Vaisheshika the world can be classified and reduced into seven basic and fundamental Categories or Padarthas. Padarthas are defined as all real things
that exist and come under the object of knowledge that can be cognized and
named. Vaisheshika philosophy’s intention is elaborated by Sage Vyomasiva as
“Yad iha bhavarupam thad sarvam maya upasamkathavyam” which means that “I shall
enumerate everything in this world that has a character of being”. In another
verse, he clarifies as “Yad bhavarupam tad sarvam abhi rahasyam” which means
that the basic intention of this philosophy is to enumerate and classify the
totality of what is there and what exists. So this is a comprehensive inventory
and list of what is the existence of this world. So Vaisheshika deals with the
fundamental ontological question of the existence of the world. It is a
container of all basic and fundamental categories or padartha, its
subcategories and unchangeable units. So Vaisheshika desired to elucidate the
structure of this complex world most briefly and easily possible. Hence
it adopted the method of “dharma” and “dharmin”.
Dharma here means the property which belongs to an entity and an entity to
which it belongs the entity that possessed the property is called dharmin. So
dharmin is the property possessor and dharma is property. For example, if I
hold a book in my hand, the book is dharma (property) and the hand is the
dharmin. Although the reality is divided into two namely “being” or
“bhava” and “non-being” or “abhava”, all objects of knowledge
are represented by words and the truth of knowledge is closely linked. Being
stands for all positive realities of physical things and psychological
realities of mind and “self”. Non-being stands for all negative facts like the
non-existence of things (abhava). There are six kinds of “being” and one kind
of “non-being”.
The six kinds of “being” are
Substance or dravya, Quality or guna, Action or karma, Generality or
Samanya, Particularity or Visesha and Relation of inherence or Samavaya.
Substance or Dravya: English
word substance is not a suitable translation for Dravya, particularly in Hindu
philosophy. Even in the other orthodox Hindu philosophy of Yoga and in Jainism
the meaning is a little different. It is very difficult to give a suitable
definition in one sentence. In Vaisheshika sutra it is defined as “Kriyavath
gunavath samavayikaran ithi dravya lakshanam”. Dravya is the independent,
uncreated, eternal substratum that supports all other categories and classes
and is a complex and elusive concept. It is the base upon which all other
categories reside and without Dravya all other categories do not exist. It does
not exist in any other categories and five out of six categories exist in
Dravya. Since it is always the supporter and substratum of all categories or
dravya and is not supported by any category.
There are nine types of
Dravyas and they are earth (prithvi), water (jala),
light (tejas), air (vayu), ether (akasha),
time (kala), space (dik), Self (atma)
and mind (manas). Each of them possesses a specific
quality (visesha) which is sensed by five external sense organs. The Dravya of
earth, water, light, and air are of two types in which one is eternal (nithya)
and the other is non-eternal (anithya). Dravyas are both simple
and composite and are objective realities. Earth, water, light and air are
atomic and eternal and produce composite things. Composite substances are
subject to change.
Atoms of earth or prithvi
hold four qualities of odour, taste, colour and touch which function as dharma
(property). The supporting base or property possessor (dharmin) is atoms of
prithvi. Atoms of prithvi (dharmin) function four dharmas like smell, taste,
colour and touch. Earth or prithvi, water (jala), light (tejas) and air (vayu)
is made up of atoms or “paramanu'' which is indivisible and eternal. Each atom
and molecule possesses certain properties and is a building block of matter.
They combine in geometric progression to form a phenomenal world. Creation is
the combination of atoms and destruction is the dissolution of the combined
compounds.
At the beginning of a new
creation cycle, atoms are first to get into motion by the divine power of
“God”. This result in the combination of two atoms to create a new product
called “dyad” or “dvyanuka” and after that three dyads combine to form a triad
or “tryanuka”. This is the smallest visible form of matter. Similarly, four
triads combine to form tetrad or “chaturanuka “. Subsequently, the creation of
the gross bodies and substance or dravya takes place. Each atom is
fundamentally different from the others. The material constituents of the world
can be divided into parts and it again can be divided into parts. It can be
divided into an infinite number of parts and the atom is the smallest and
minute part of dravya that can’t be divided. Atom can be split only by
bombardment of proton and the law of conservation of energy is applied here.
After the dissolution of dravya atoms remains in a passive motionless state.
Atoms of water hold three qualities of taste, colour and touch. Tejas or light
possess two qualities of colour and touch and atoms of air possess touch. We
cannot see, taste and smell the air and only can feel it. It is the core
combination of atoms in different ways.
Space or Dik
possesses two properties of distance and direction and is eternal, infinite and
all-pervading. Time is an infinite, eternal and static background against which
events happen and derive their chronological order.
Akasha is a
technical term in Vaisheshika and is not space. Sound, colour, taste and smell
are qualities. If the sound is quality, it requires a medium of propagation and
cannot exist independently like colour cannot exist in empty space. It requires
a dravya to exist and a dharmin must support them and require a substratum.
None of dravya like earth, light and water can’t support sound. So a postulation
has been made to support dravya and this supporter is called akasha. The
function of Akasha is the carrier and substratum of sound and the propagation
of sound is in the form of waves. The sound is produced by the conjunction or
disjunction of objects or contact between two objects. For example, the contact
between the drum and the stick produces sound.
Self or Atma is the ninth and can be
postulated as follows,
Cx = x belongs to cognition
or jnana,
Gx = x belongs to guna,
Dx = x belongs to Dravya or
substance,
Px = x belongs to prithvi or
earth,
Jx = x belongs to jala or
water,
Tx = x belongs to tejas or
light,
Vx = x belongs to vayu or
air,
Ax = x belongs to akasha or
ether,
Kx = x belongs to kala or
time,
Mx = x belongs to manas or
mind,
Ax = x belongs to dravya
called atma or self,
According to Vaisheshika
philosophy, cognition is a quality (guna). Quality (Guna) cannot exist
independently and requires a substance (dravya) to reside in and a substratum
to exist. It cannot exist in any of the other substances (dravya). By logic,
Vaisheshika philosophy infers that it exists in a separate substance (dravya)
to function as the property possessor (Dharmin). After examination and
analysis, Vaisheshika understood that cognition (jnana), exists in some other
substance (dravya) and that substance (dravya) is named the self (atma). It is
infinite in number, size and eternal in nature and substratum of cognition
(Jnana). But cognition (jnana) is not the essential quality (guna) of self
(atma) and is capable of cognition (Jnana). Cognition (jnana) arises in the
self (Atma) when the appropriate causal condition is present, that is when it
contacts the mind. Atma (self) itself is unconscious even in the state of
liberation the self (Atma) is not conscious and it loses awareness. Iswara
comes under the category of Dravya. “Iswara, the “absolute atma” is a
special kind of “self” with certain eternal qualities, eternally conscious and
eternal universal knowledge. The “individual self” or “Jivatma” is not
eternally conscious and can become conscious but not naturally conscious. It is
the “apparent self” or “manifested self”. To distinguish from all
Jivatman (individual self) the term “Paramatma” is used. “Paramatma” is the
“real self and true nature” of “being”. Absolute Atma or “Supreme Self” is also
called “Iswara”. The “absolute Atma” can desire at will and does not affect
miseries and happiness. It contributes to the cause of the universe and the creator
and destroyer of the universe. Moreover, it governs the universe and dispenses justice.
The mind or manas is the tenth Dravya
or substance. Vaisheshika philosophy separates two sects of attention and
awareness. To explain attention, it postulates a dravya and organ
solely responsible for manas or mind. Cognition arises in the Atma when it
comes to contact with the manas. Before atman can become aware of the sense
objects at first it must direct the manas to the location of the sense faculty
to receive the object data. The Self direct the manas to a different part of
the body and sense organs. Manas and the power of attention it carries arise in
“Atma” and it is under the control of the "self". The self’s direction allows it to move
from one sense faculty to other and enables the self to receive information
from different faculty. More specifically the postulate says that it is an
intermediator organ between sense faculties and self. Since it is atomic in
size it has limited potential and the senses can aware of any one type of
information at a time and not a flurry of information simultaneously. Moreover,
it is not restricted to the external data coming from the external sense organs
it extends it to internal organs as well. The feelings of desire, pain and
pleasure are aware due to the contact of manas. So manas is an instrument
necessary for the rise of awareness. Attention is before awareness and the
process of attention is the cause of awareness, cognition and jnana. This is
the focal point and this had caused wide debate with Buddhism.
Guna is wrongly
translated as quality or property and it is a technical term. Guna is an
unrepeatable entity that cannot exist independently by itself but inheres in a
substance or dravya and is not a constitutive cause of anything. For example,
there is no universal guna and each is different and refers to a unique type of
object of the world in Vaisheshika. Guna cannot exist independently and
requires a dravya to reside in. Atoms of the earth possess smell and it is a
guna. So when atoms of the earth are real the guna it possesses is also real. So guna
is dharma (property) and resides in a dravya. While it resides in a dravya it
can also become a dharmin (property possessor) and can support other
categories. There are both mental qualities and material qualities with static
features. Sage Kanada illustrated 17 qualities and later Sage Prasasthapada added 7 more qualities. They are mental as well as material in characters
and they are colour, taste, smell, touch, number, contact, disjunction,
farness, nearness, dimension, separateness, cognition, pleasure, frustration,
desire, hatred, effort, weight, fluidity, viscosity, dispositional tendency,
sound, dharma (moral merits) and adharma (moral demerits).
Action or Karma is motion
and resides in dravya. It is similar to guna in most aspects and cannot exist
independently. Action is dynamic and transient and it is the cause of
conjunction and disjunction. Motion is of five types and out of these four are
volitional and one is non-volitional. The four volitional actions are throwing
upward, throwing downward, contraction and expansion. The non-volitional action
types are falling, rotating and flowing. A moving body possesses at each moment
in time a particular motion which is momentary property of the body. The motion
is dharma (property) and resides in the moving body (dravya) which functions as
dharmin (property possessor). The initial motion is brought by an external force
on the body or by the internal possession of qualities like weight or fluidity.
But subsequent motion is by impetus or velocity may be due to elasticity.
Weight is the non-inherent cause of the initial falling motion of a body. An
example of this is the falling of fruit from a tree it was motionless at some
point in time and its weight is counterbalanced by contact with the tree
resisting the Centre of gravity of earth. When it falls initial energy is due
to the weight of the fruit and it is momentary and produces a dispositional
impetus in the fruit. Fluidity is the non-inherent cause of flowing. Impetus is
the non-inherent cause of a falling motion of a body. The elasticity of the
substance restores to its original state after it has distorted.
Samanya (Generality) or
universality is the theory of the universe. It is a class concept or essence
which is the common character of the things that fall under the same class. It
is different from the genus which stands for the class and includes the
subclasses. The real universe is an entity that is unitary and indivisible.
Humanity is the generality or class essence of all human beings inhering from
them. Sage Kanada explains generality and particularity as relative to thought.
But they are not mere subjective concepts of our mind and are objective
realities. Accordingly, universality resides in dravya, guna and karma and is
eternal.
Particularity or Visesha is the
“basic differentia” the unique category resides in dravya function as their
differentiator. This signifies that every individual is a single and unique
thing different from others. If we take two human beings one in particular from
other individuals and enable us to perceive difference and uniqueness in one
another. Particularity is the opposite of generality and exclusive while
generality is inclusive. Composite objects are not real particulars because
they are composed of parts and removing the parts will collapse their existence.
Particularity is applied only to ultimate, simple and eternal substances like
atoms and “Atma”. Since they are highly particular realities in terms of
quality and quantity and different from one another. Moreover, Nyaya and
Vaisheshika's realism is both quantitative and qualitative pluralism.
Samavaya or Relation of inherence is the category tied together through an inseparable relation. It is an inseparable and eternal relation. It is conversely from samyoga or conjunction which is separable and transient relation. Samavaya is a guna or quality and is an independent Category or Padartha. Sage Kanada explain it as the relation between cause and effect and things related by Samavya are inseparably connected (Ayuthasiddha). It is eternal and imperceptible since its making would involve infinite regress. It is like cloth and yarn and removing the yarn would result in the vanishing of the cloth. The things which are inseparably connected are:
The parts and whole: if you
remove one of the parts of the fountain pen it cannot exist.
Substance and quality: if
you remove the substance of a pen from its colour it cannot exist and colour
itself has no existence.
Action and the substance: If
removing a substance from the action it cannot function. For example, if block
a flow of water it cannot flow.
Universality or generality
inheres in the individual members of the same class. All human beings are
belonging to humanity and we cannot separate humanity from human beings.
The particularity and
eternal substances: The mind and the “self” exist in our body and we cannot
remove the mind and self from our body.