Sankhya Philosophy
Sage
Kapila is the founder of this
philosophy and he has written the Sankhya Sutra. The name “Sankhya '' is an
adaptation of the term “Sankhya '' which means number because it is the right
knowledge of the real universe. It is also known as perfect knowledge (Samyag
jnana) and in one way it is orthodox, and dualistic and in another way it is
atheistic. Second is the work of Sage Gaudapada who has written Sankhya Karika
Bhasya. Sage Gaudapada had written Sankhya Karika Bhashya, Sage Vachaspati
Misra had written Tattva Kaumudi, and Sage Vijnanabhikshu had written two
Bhashya called Sankhya Sara and Sankhya Sutra Bhashya. Unfortunately, the text
by Sage Iswara Krishna’s Sankhya Karika is the only surviving
text present today. Moreover, this system is known for clarity and knowledge
metaphysically and epistemologically. It is known as a rationalistic,
comprehensive and systematic school of Hindu Philosophy. Furthermore, it is
orthodox in one way and atheistic in other ways because of the
non-acceptance of “God” or the creator of this universe. Metaphysically there
are three important theories, first is the theory of causation, second is the
doctrine of “Purusha'' or “Pure Consciousness” and
third is the concept of “Prakriti” or “Primordial
Matter”. In metaphysics, it is the evolution of the world.
Epistemologically this system consists of only three means of knowledge or
Pramanas and they are perception, inference and verbal testimony. The most
distinguishing feature of this system is bondage and liberation, how the “Self”
gets bound and how it gets into suffering and how it can be disengaged and
liberated. According to this system, ignorance is the main cause of suffering
and knowledge is alone the source of liberation from the bondage of life and
freedom from suffering. The principal knowledge is the detachment of Purusha
which is the witness of consciousness getting entangled with Prakriti, the
primordial matter principle.
In
this metaphysics, the theory of causation is known as Satkaryavada. According
to this theory, the effect originally exists in the material cause before its
production. This means that if the effect were non-existent in the material
cause, then no amount of effort on the part of any agent could bring it into
existence. Hence, this theory is rejected by Buddhist, Nyaya and Vaisheshika
philosophies. This is against the theory of causation of Asatkaryavada or
Arambavada which says that the effect does not really exist in the cause but
begins a new product. Accordingly, the counterargument for this by Sankhya
philosophy is that, if the effect were not already existent in the cause, no
amount of effort on anybody or even the “God” cannot bring about effect into
existence therefore effect is already present in the cause. On the contrary
Asadkaryavada of Nyaya and Vaisheshika's philosophy says that effect is a
completely new product that was not there in the cause, and effect comes out of
the cause by destroying the cause.
Moreover,
there are two types of Satkaryavada, one is Parinamavada (Theory of Change) and
Vivarthavada (Theory of Changelessness). Parinamavada says that the effect is
the result of a real transformation of the cause and effect which means the
cause is being changed into the form of effect. On the other hand, Vivarthavada
says that it is not the change or transformation of the cause and effect but
the cause that appears as the effect. The change of cause and effect is only
apparent and not real. This is exactly the analogy of snake and rope in the
Advaita Vedanta of Sage Adi Sankaracharya. Like rope appearing as a snake in
the absence of light and vice versa. This is the explanation given by this
concept of Vivartavada in Satkaryavada. This is the temporary and mistaken
appearance taking in different forms because we see property or circumstances not contributing to the real perception of the cause. The doctrine of
Prakriti is a significant element of the theory of causation and it is the
potential and material cause of everything in this universe. Purusha is the
nature of consciousness and activity, while Prakriti is an uncaused cause which
means that it is not produced by any other cause even if it is not the product
of “God”. Moreover, both are independently existent and it is called the
“uncaused cause''.
Proofs
for the existence of Prakriti.
1.
There should be a cause of this universe and anything finite cannot be
the cause of Prakriti.
2.
There must be a common source composed of three Gunas from which all worldly
things arise.
3.
All effects arise from the activity of potent causes and they evolve out of the
implicit causes.
4.
All effects are limited and so they cannot be their own causes.
5.
The unity of the universe points to a single cause, which is Prakriti.
Objects
are finite and objects cannot be the cause themselves. Finite things are not
produced by themselves so far the existence of finite objects.
Consequently, there must be an infinite source of energy to produce this finite
matter called Prakriti. Besides Prakriti has three innate qualities called Gunas”
Moreover,
when there is evolution, there will be disruption and change in the equilibrium
of Gunas. Although Prakriti is the nature of action, it begins to evolve due to
the relationship with Purusha and the disturbance of Prakriti or the
disturbance of the equilibrium of the three Gunas. When Prakriti comes into
contact with Purusha this equilibrium is disturbed, and Prakriti becomes
manifest.
The
principal aspect of this Prakriti is that it is composed of three Gunas or
qualities. These are Satva, Rajas and Tamas. Satva is known for pureness and positivity, Rajas is active and restless and Tamas is known for laziness, sloth, inertia and indifference.
The
doctrine of Purusha is concise as below,
It
contains five principles and can describe them concisely,
1.
It is the co-eternal reality of Prakriti.
2. It
is the principle of pure consciousness or prime consciousness.
3.
It is the subject knower, which is never known.
4.
Neither the brain, mind, ego nor intellect can be called Prakriti.
5.
It is beyond time, space, change and reality.
There
are five arguments for the existence of Purusha:
First
is the teleological argument which says that the Prakriti evolved to serve
Purusha's end.
Second
is the logical argument that the compound objects comprising the three Gunas
presuppose the existence of Purusha.
The third
is the ontological argument which says that all knowledge fundamentally
essential to the existence of the “Self” as the foundation (Adhisthana)
Fourth
is the moral argument that says that the experience of pleasure, pain and
delusion presupposes the existence of Purusha.
The
final is the religious argument which says that the desire for liberation
refers to the existence of a person seeking liberation.
Furthermore,
a peculiar characteristic of the Sankhya system is that it gives five proofs of
the existence of Prakriti. This world evolves out of Prakriti and this
evolution begins when the Prakriti comes into contact with Purusha. Association
between the “Self” and the “Primordial Matter” is like the cooperation between
a blind man and a lame man stuck in a desert and trying to escape from there.
Prakriti needed the vital presence of Purusha for existence. When there is
evolution, the equilibrium of Gunas is affected. The unconscious Prakriti
itself cannot produce anything even though it is the material and potent cause,
and it needed the assistance of an efficient cause i.e. Purusha. Moreover,
Purusha (consciousness) needed the assistance of Prakriti to determine
itself from the latter and it enlivened the “being”. Moreover, Prakriti is
active, not dormant and unable to evolve anything unless Purusha the efficient
cause desires to do so. It is the material and potent cause where Purusha and
Prakriti, with mutual support, evolve products. Hence imperceptible
things are only inferential from their products and it is the root cause of all
objects in the world. Therefore, we have to bear in mind that Prakriti is what
we see through our sense perceptions which is imperceptible behind what is
appearing and what we can see through our senses. Hence what is
manifested is only the appearance of Prakriti, which is called Mula Prakriti,
and behind this appearance, there is an Avyakta or “unmanifest”. The first
principle of the universe (Pradhana), which means the product first comes out
of Mula Prakriti, is called “The Great” or “Mahat”, which is also known as “Intentional Consciousness”. There are 23 tattvas or elements of evolution from
Mahat” or “The Great”, while Purusha has only one tattva and the total tattva stands
at 24. From Mahat evolves the three initial elements of Intellect (Buddhi), Ego
(Ahamkara) and Mind (Manas). These three components of Intellect, Ego and Mind
together are called the “Chitta”. It is an evolutionary process of moving from
subtle to gross i.e. subtleness condenses into gross matter. Now the mind
evolves and condenses into two, one is called Jnana Indriya which is the organ
of sense perception and the other is Karma indriya which is the organ of action
also called motor organs. The organs of sense perception are the ear, skin,
eyes, tongue and nose. The motor organs are the mouth, arms, legs, excretory
organs and reproductive organs. Ego or Ahamkara have evolved into an element
called Tanmatra which makes the world perceptible and it has the attributes of
sound, touch, sight, taste and smell. Further Tanmatra evolves into
Panchabhutas (five elements) which consist of this living world like ether,
air, light, water and earth.
Now let us discuss “Intellect, " a paramount faculty
of a human being. Functions of intellect are ascertainment and decision and it
understands the distinction between subject and object. Manifest itself and
other objects and discriminate between Purusha and Prakriti. It is the source
of all virtues (dharma), knowledge and wisdom and the controller of all
intellectual activities.
Epistemology of Sankhya:
There are three types of knowledge in Sankhya. First is
perception, second is inference and third is verbal testimony.
Perception:
Valid knowledge (Prama) is the source of all cognition of objects
when we contact. When we contact the object with sense organs, the intellect
becomes modified into the shape of the object seen. The reflection of the
self’s consciousness in the intellect takes the form of the object. There are
two types of perception one is Indeterminate (Nirvikalpa) and the other Determinate (Savikalpa). This is the same as that of Nyaya Philosophy.
Indeterminate (Nirvikalpa):
It is the perception that not only presents the bare object
without any characterization but is also psychological and not logical.
Confined to feeling and sensation and devoid of conception, it immediately
passes into determinate perception which is logical, cognitive and judgmental.
Determinate (Savikalpa):
It is the cognition of objects with names and attributes. E.g.
seeing an elephant as an elephant, cat as a cat with definite knowledge. It
involves assimilation, discrimination, analysis and synthesis which is
differentiated, rational, conceptual and articulated knowledge. Seeing a white moving
object at a distance and when it comes near seeing it as a white coloured bus.
Here there are two stages of perception, one is indeterminate when it is moving
at a distance the second is when it comes near. When it was moving it was
indeterminate and when it came near it was determinate. So two stages of
perception are separated only in thought and not in reality.
Inference:
Arriving at the knowledge of that which is not perceived.
Knowledge of a universal relation (Vyapti) between the perceived and not
perceived. Knowledge of universal relation between two objects from the
repeated observation of their concomitance. Inferring the presence of fire
which is not perceived from the smoke which is perceived.
Verbal Testimony:
Verbal testimony is defined as a statement of a trustworthy or
authoritative person's authenticity (“Apthavakhya”). It may be family members,
texts of sacred value, reliable medium and reliable persons. Words and
sentences have the power to convey knowledge through trustworthy statements.
Spiritual testimony is the testimony of ancient scripts of Vedas
and Upanishads. This Vedic testimony is an authentic and believable source of
knowledge and people are not misguided by this knowledge. It is the testimony
of saints, sages and rishis and is flawless, faultless and impeccable
knowledge. Testimony given by ordinary people like neighbours and books written
by unscholarly citizens is not error-free and unfailing because human beings
are susceptible to error and failure. The majority of the people are not
far-sighted, even if some knowledge is true today may become proved false
tomorrow.
The goal of Sankhya:
The goal is the liberation from individual sufferings and bondage
to worldly objects. It is the ignorance of Purusha mistaking its reflection in
the intellect for itself and it arises when Purursha identifies itself with the
intellect, the ego and the mind. Precisely it is the disengagement of the “Real
Self” with “Non-Self”, paving the way for the isolation of Prakriti from
Purusha which is the Pure consciousness.
There are three kinds of sorrows and sufferings. They are
Adhyatmika, Adhibaudhika, and Adhidaivika. Adhyatmika means sufferings arise
out of my own or one’s own psycho-physical organism. Adhibaudhika means apart
from myself suffering comes from other beings and creatures. Adhidaivika
means that suffering comes from alien elements and not from our own makings.
Liberation means complete freedom from the bondage of all sufferings in life
and it is called Parama Purushartha. Moreover, the Sankhya system states that
both bondage and liberation are only phenomenal and do not apply to the Purusha
factor.
Furthermore, if it is said that liberation is extraordinary and
that Purusha is never bound and that it is only for intellectual bondage and
there is no Purusha element, then why do we consider Purusha to explain bondage
and liberation?
Systems of Nyaya and Vaisheshika are syncretic and allied systems
likewise systems of Sankhya and Yoga are also syncretic and allied systems.
Besides, Sankha is a pure theoretical system whereas yoga is a practical
system. Accordingly, only by following a yoga Practitioner (Sadhaka) can attain
liberation.
We have already understood that Sankhya does not accept the
concept of a “Creator God (Iswara)” and gives three clarifications. They are:
Firstly, if the existence of the law of action (karma) is assumed,
then the role of God is nonessential and if God enforces the consequences of
action then the law of action is unnecessary.
Secondly, if God enforces the consequences of action then, either
God is egoistic or altruistic and hence God would not desire a world filled
with sorrows and pains.
Thirdly, the sufficient proof is not available to establish the
existence of God which can be authenticated using a valid state of knowledge.
On the contrary Yoga, the system accepts the third component as”
Creator God (Iswara)” or called “Supreme consciousness” keeping the concept of
Purusha and Prakriti together. Consequently, there are three components namely
Purusha, Prakrit and “Creator God (Iswara)” known as “Supreme Consciousness”.
“Creator God (Iswara)” known as “Supreme Consciousness” is a vital component in
the Yoga System because it is only by the grace of Iswara that one yoga
practitioner (Sadhaka) can attain liberation. Here “Purusha Vishesha” is the
term introduced for Supreme Consciousness.
Now let us go through the differences between the Sankhya system
and the Yoga system:
Firstly, Yoga accepts three realities i.e. Purusha, Prakriti and
Iswara, while Sankhya accepts only two realities i.e. Purusha and Prakriti.
Secondly, Sankhya’s primary emphasis is on the gain of knowledge
(Jnana) and enquiring about the nature of truth, on the other hand, Yoga
primarily stresses the practices and disciplines to control the modifications
of “Chitta”.
Yoga utilises the foundations of Sankhya, besides receiving
knowledge from other sources of Upanishads and Vedas.
There are five similarities between Sankhya and Yoga and they are:
1. Both accept three
valid sources of knowledge namely perception, inference and verbal testimony.
2. Both accept the
dualistic theory of Purusha and Prakriti.
3. Both accept
ignorance is the cause of suffering.
4. Both accept the brightening and controlling of Chitta and mind.
5. Both are adopting
rational and practical procedures.
If we analyse both systems, they will get overlapped and be
difficult to understand. Aspects of it can be explained later in the next
module of Yoga philosophy.